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Objective: To identify whether positive, negative, or zero work is being done, to identify the force that is doing the work, and to describe the energy transformation associated with such work.

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Charge Interactions

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Use a model about charge and charge interactions to reason towards conclusions about the charges on the objects that are observed.

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Use a model about charge and charge interactions to reason towards conclusions about the charges on the objects that are observed. Includes the most difficult questions.

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Use findings about the charge interactions of objects to predict the results of additional charge interaction tests.

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Charge Interactions It is a well-accepted belief that objects are composed of atoms and that these atoms contain protons, electrons and neutrons. Objects can become charged by gaining or by losing electrons. This gain or loss can occur by a variety of methods. Perhaps the most common method involves rubbing one object against another object. The process of rubbing two different materials together often results in the transfer of electrons. Electrons are transferred from the less electron-loving object to the more electron-loving object. Protons are never transferred since they are tightly bound within the nucleus of atoms. Electrons are charged negatively and protons are charged positively. So while an electrically neutral object has a balance of protons and electrons, a charged object possesses an imbalance of these two types of subatomic particles. Positively charged objects contain more protons than electrons. Negatively charged objects contain more electrons than protons. The charge that an object possesses can often be determined by observing how it interacts with objects of known charge. Two like-charged objects will be observed to repel or push away from each other. Two oppositely charged objects will be observed to attract or draw towards each other. And a charged object - whether positive or negative - and a neutral object will also attract each other. A group of physics students rub several different objects with the same sample of synthetic animal fur. They then test their interactions with one another. Table 1 shows the results of the various tests. Object A is a negatively charged balloon. Use this information to answer the following questions. Before doing so, it might be helpful to identify the type of charge - positive, negative or neutral - of each of the six objects.

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Stopping Distance One aspect of safe driving involves the ability to stop a car readily. This ability depends upon the driver's alertness and readiness to stop, the conditions of the road, the speed of the car, and the braking characteristics of the car. The actual distance it takes to stop a car consists of two parts - the reaction distance and braking distance. When a driver sees an event in his/her field of view that might warrant braking (for example, a dog running into the street), a collection of actions must be taken before the braking actually begins. First the driver must identify the event and decide if braking is necessary. Then the driver must lift his/her foot off the gas pedal and move it to the brake pedal. And finally, the driver must press the brake down its full distance in order to obtain maximum braking acceleration. The time to do all this is known as the reaction time. The distance traveled during this time is known as the reaction distance. Once the brakes are applied, the car begins to slow to a stop. The distance traveled by the car during this time is known as the braking distance. The braking distance is dependent upon the original speed of the car, the road conditions, and characteristics of the car such as its profile area, mass and tire conditions. Figure 1 shows the stopping distance for a Toyota Prius on dry pavement resulting from a 0.75-second reaction time. The reaction time of the driver is highly dependent upon the alertness of the driver. Small changes in reaction time can have a large effect upon the total stopping distance. Table 1 shows the reaction distance, braking distance, and total stopping distance for a Toyota Prius with an original speed of 50.0 mi/hr and varying reaction times.

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